sábado, 11 de agosto de 2007

Historia de la Arquitectura Gótica

Las plantas de los grandes edificios góticos no fueron muy diferentes de las de las grandes catedrales románicas: tres naves, transepto y cabecera con girola y capillas radiales. En el alzado se respetó la configuración de tres pisos superpuestos. Pero donde la arquitectura gótica es esencialmente diferente a la románica es en el sistema de abovedamiento, ya que en el románico se emplean pesadas bóvedas de medio cañón sobre arquerías de medio punto que debían soportar inmensos esfuerzos, en colaboración de gruesos muros. El arquitecto románico, como el gótico, buscó también el carácter ascensional del templo y la luz, pero se vio maniatado por los recursos arquitectónicos de que disponía. En su lugar, prefirió centrarse en el orden y la regularidad de las formas para transmitir armonía.
La arquitectura gótica se basó en el arco apuntado y la bóveda de crucería, además del arbotante.
El arco apuntado nació en el románico de Borgoña. La famosa abadia de Cluny III lo incorpora de manera majestuosa y es rápidamente difundido. El arco apuntado ejerce menos resistencia que el de medio punto al peso superior que soporta y su estilizada figura permite una estética ascensional que será explotada plenamente por el gótico.
El segundo, y primero en importancia, elemento esencial de la arquitectura gótica es la bóveda de crucería. Se puede afirmar sin demasiado titubeo que no hay ingenio arquitectónico tan polémico, estudiado y analizado como la misteriosa bóveda de crucería gótica.
El uso de bóvedas con nervios de refuerzo ya se usó en el mundo romano y posteriormente en la arquitectura musulmana y lombarda. Sin embargo, se considera que las primeras bóvedas que se pueden considerar precedentes de la futura gótica se desarrolló en el mundo anglonormando (como por ejemplo, la Catedral de Durham y las iglesias de Caen) aunque éstas son sexpartitas y los arcos de medio punto. Desde entonces este sistema de abovedamiento transformó el románico dotándolo de una cubrición para el que no estaba preparado y permitió el paso definitivo al mundo gótico puro.
Se ha escrito mucho y de manera opuesta sobre la razón de tal invento. La bóveda de arista románica es la formada por el cruce perpendicular de dos bóvedas de medio cañón. La bóveda de arista es usada de manera sistemática en el románico, en concreto para cubrir las naves laterales. Básicamente, la bóveda de crucería es el resultado del cruce de dos bóvedas de cañón apuntado soportada por dos arcos cruceros diagonales. Para algunos autores esta aclaración es primordial: la bóveda gótica no sería una bóveda "con" crucería (los nervios están embutidos en la bóveda y no soportan nada) sino una bóveda "sobre" crucería (los arcos son ajenos a los plementos de las bóvedas que apoya sobre ellos).
Pero aquí empieza la polémica. Para algunos autores y sobre todo para la corriente romántica del siglo XIX que idealiza el mundo medieval y su arquitectura, en especial el gótico, los arcos cruceros realmente soportan el total del peso de la bóveda que se cierne sobre ellos desplazando todo el peso, como cañerías que conducen el agua hasta el desagüe del suelo, a los cuatro puntos de arranque de los mismos. En un sentido literal, este sistema está basado en un equilibrio dinámico complejísimo que fallaría si cualquiera de los sillares de los plementos estuviera mal colocado o, peor aún, si las dovelas de los arcos cruceros se desajustaran.
Para otros autores, sin embargo, la importancia de estos arcos cruceros es muy inferior a la conferida inicialmente. Para ello se basan en la observación de iglesias y catedrales semidestruidas en las guerras europeas donde se pudo comprobar cómo las plementerías que habían perdido los arcos cruceros se mantenían perfectamente estables. Para ello no hay que pensar que uno de las grande avances de los canteros góticos fue trabajar con gran pulcritud los sillares de los plementos creando piedras de fino espesor y muy ajustados entre sí, que al fraguar la argamasa entre ellos dan como resultado una bóveda relativamente ligera y muy rígida y resistente. Para estos autores, los arcos cruceros no serían otra cosa que la manera de adornar las aristas de unas bóvedas con irregularidades como consecuencia de tener que abovedar tramos no cuadrados o proyectadas desde arcos a desigual altura. En palabras de Bango Torviso, las ojivas son "cimbras monumentalizadas en piedra". Ello justificaría que en el gótico final se construyeran bóvedas de crucería más complejas y barrocas con nervios de diseño caprichoso alejados completamente de cualquier utilidad arquitectónica y sí meramente decorativa.
Posiblemente entre estos dos extremos esté la verdad. Lo que es claro es que, en conjunto, estas estructuras liberan de casi todo el peso a los muros perimetrales, localizándolo en cuatro puntos determinados. Esto permite desmaterializar el muro mediante grandes vanos o ventanales con tracerías caladas en las que se encastraron hermosísimas vidrieras coloreadas. Para reforzar los puntos de evacuación del peso se reforzaron los contrafuertes ya usados de manera continua en el románico y sobre todo se empleó el arbotante, verdadero arco de apuntalamiento que conduce el peso soportado por las zonas de sostén definitivamente hacia el exterior del edificio a través de un contrafuerte situado en el exterior coronado por un pináculo.
Tan complejo sistema de esfuerzos y contrarrestos determina completamente el intrincado, y a veces abigarrado, aspecto exterior de las catedrales góticas, repletos de estribos, arbotantes y pináculos. No más sencillas son las fachadas principales. La típica fachada gótica se divide en tres cuerpos horizontales y tres secciones verticales o calles, donde se abren las tres portadas que se corresponden con las naves interiores. Las dos torres laterales forman parte del cuerpo de la fachada y se rematan frecuentemente por agujas o chapiteles. Por último, el gran rosetón calado, además de fuente de luz y color para el interior, supone un magnífico centro para la totalidad del conjunto.
Gótico temprano
Al gótico temprano no hay que confundirlo con los numerosos templos franceses y del resto de Europa de la primera mitad del siglo XII cuya planta y alzado es plenamente tardorrománico pero que adopta bóvedas de crucería como solución final. Estas iglesias -que en España son muy numerosas sobre todo a en la segunda mitad del siglo- suelen presentar como soportes pilares cuadrados o cruciformes con cuatro semicolumnas adosadas para recibir los arcos perpiaños y formeros. Al decidir posteriormente su cubrición con bóveda de ojivas hubo que improvisar ménsulas a cada lado de la columna superior para soportar los arcos cruceros. En algunos casos se prescindió de las ménsulas y los nervios cruceros apearon directamente en el muro siendo embebidos en éste. En ocasiones a este estilo tardío románico con bóvedas de ojivas se le ha denominado "románico ojival" y está más relacionado con las construcciones cistercienses que con un verdadero espíritu gótico.
Sin embargo, cuando un edificio es puramente gótico, con la intención de tener bóveda de crucería desde su origen, los soportes son "pilares compuestos" con columnas en las caras frontales y columnillas en las esquinas para apear las ojivas. Además el edificio gótico debe tener añadida -como vimos en apartados anteriores- una coherencia general basada en la altura y el cromatismo de la luz, que no poseen los templos híbridos antes descritos.
Por ello se admite que el gótico nace en la Isla de Francia, concretamente en la girola de las iglesia abacial de Saint-Denis, panteón real cercano a París y construida a partir de 1137, donde las finas columnas que soportan las bóvedas de crucería sin muros divisorios entre las diferentes capillas crean un espacio continuo y dinámico que servirá de base para el desarrollo de esta nueva arquitectura.
Tras los pasos de Saint-Denis siguió la construcción de uno de los templos más emblemáticos y conocidos de la arquitectura medieval europea: la catedral de Notre Dame de París -comenzada en 1163- donde se comienza a desmaterializar el muro y a buscar grandes alturas. (Ver foto inferior)
Después seguirían las catedrales de Laon y Noyon, donde se añade un cuarto piso (triforio) al tradicional sistema de arquerías, tribuna y claristorio. Otra características de estos edificios góticos iniciales es el empleo de la bóveda sexpartita bastante abombada (las claves de las ojivas están más altas que las claves de arcos formeros y perpiaños) para asegurar mayor verticalidad a los empujes.



Gótico clásico
Ya dentro del período clásico del gótico, la catedral de Chartres -comenzada en 1194- vuelve al alzado de tres pisos: arquería, triforio y claristorio, habiendo sido eliminada la tribuna, invento románico para reforzar las bóvedas de la nave central, siendo el superior o claristorio de enormes ventanales bíforos apuntados con rosetones, tréboles cuadrifolios, etc. Los sabios arbotantes de Chartres permiten eliminar el abombamiento de las bóvedas con lo que las claves de todos los arcos están al mismo nivel.
Este periodo del gótico clásico culminó en la catedral de Reims (comenzada en 1210) y que sigue el esquema general de Chartres. Con sus equilibradas proporciones, Reims representa el momento clásico de serenidad y reposo en la evolución de las catedrales góticas.
La catedral de cinco naves de Bourges (comenzada en 1195) reduce la altura del claristorio en favor de la longitud de la arquería inferior y el triforio que alcanzan gran altura, pero sacrifica la luminosidad .
Amiens y Beauvais suponen el último peldaño de la gran arquitectura gótica francesa, donde la verticalidad y la luz -grandes anhelos del gótico- alcanzan su máximo esplendor. De entrada, el muro exterior del triforio del coro es calado por lo que también la nave es iluminada y coloreada mediante el piso intermedio. Las arquerías se elevan mediante arcos extremadamente apuntados y El claristorio se hace enormemente alto, comparable a la altura del piso de arcos formeros, con lo que la altura total de la bóveda alcanza los 50 metros en el caso de Beauvais.
Queda decir que las catedrales de Amiens y Bourges inspiraron las españolas de León y Burgos respectivamente.

Gótico radiante
En esta fase del gótico frances, la luz adquiere el total protagonismo ya que se desmaterializa el muro en detrimento de la altura para colocar vidrieras profusamente, en concreto, mediante rosetones (de aquí el nombre) o grandes vanos con tracerías caladas. La Sainte-Chapelle de París es el mejor ejemplo de esta arquitectura.
Gótico flamígero
La última fase de la arquitectura gótica francesa recibió el nombre de gótico flamígero o flamboyant, por el uso del arco conopial y las tracerías en forma de llama.
Las tres características más acusadas son el barroquismo de la decoración exterior de las fachadas (puertas y ventanales), la eliminación de obstáculos visuales que perjudicasen el aspecto ascensional y la complejidad decorativa (ya poco tectónica) de las bóvedas de crucería que incorporan infinidad de nervios trazando complejísimas figuras geométricas mediante terceletes, arcos combados, etc.
Esta decadente y barroca decoración llega a su máximo nivel en el llamado"estilo perpendicular" inglés donde se emplea la bóveda en abanico, como en Gloucester, Windsor, Westminster y el King’s College de Cambridge.

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